Biblical cosmology

The biblical cosmos is typically described as a three-tiered structure: the heavens above, the earth in the middle, and the underworld (Sheol) below.¹ The earth is depicted as a flat, circular disc, resting on foundations and surrounded by water, with the sky as a solid dome (the firmament) that separates the waters above from the waters below.² This firmament, created on the second day of creation, is described as holding up the celestial waters and containing the sun, moon, and stars. The underworld, Sheol, is a shadowy place of the dead, often located beneath the earth, and is contrasted with the heavens as the dwelling place of God.

The two creation accounts in Genesis present complementary but distinct cosmological perspectives. The Priestly account (Genesis 1) emphasizes order and structure, with God creating the cosmos in six days, culminating in the Sabbath rest.³ The Yahwist account (Genesis 2) focuses on the Garden of Eden, depicting a more anthropocentric world with rivers and a central tree of life.⁴ These narratives share the common ancient Near Eastern motif of creation from a primordial chaos, often personified as a sea monster (e.g., Leviathan), which God subdues.¹ The creation of humanity in the image of God is a distinctive feature, setting the biblical view apart from contemporary myths.

Prophetic books like Isaiah and Ezekiel contain vivid cosmological imagery, such as the vision of God enthroned above the firmament (Ezekiel 1) and the new heavens and new earth (Isaiah 65).⁵ Apocalyptic literature, particularly the Book of Daniel and later texts like 1 Enoch, expands on the structure of the cosmos, describing multiple heavens and angelic beings who govern celestial phenomena.⁶ These texts reflect a developing angelology and demonology, with cosmic battles between good and evil forces. The apocalyptic worldview often portrays the cosmos as a stage for eschatological events, where the present age will be replaced by a new creation.

The New Testament inherits and adapts the Old Testament cosmology, but with a Christological focus. Jesus is described as the agent of creation (John 1, Colossians 1), and his resurrection is seen as the beginning of a new creation.⁷ Paul speaks of the cosmic powers and principalities that Christ has defeated (Ephesians 6), and the Book of Revelation presents a visionary cosmology with a new heaven and a new earth, where the sea is no more.⁸ The early Christian understanding of the cosmos was thus both continuous with Jewish tradition and transformed by the belief in Christ's cosmic lordship.

Beyond the well-known three-tier model, biblical cosmology includes lesser-known details: the earth is said to be established on pillars (1 Samuel 2:8), and the heavens are described as a tent or curtain (Psalm 104:2).² The concept of the "waters above" was sometimes interpreted as a source of rain and snow, and the windows of heaven are mentioned in the flood narrative (Genesis 7:11). The ancient Israelites also had a concept of the "deep" (tehom) as a primordial ocean, and the sea was often seen as a chaotic force that God controls. The cosmological significance of the tabernacle and temple, which were seen as microcosms of the universe, is a topic of scholarly interest. Additionally, the Bible contains references to the "circle of the earth" (Isaiah 40:22), which some have interpreted as a spherical earth, though it more likely refers to a flat disc.

Firmament

The solid dome of the sky, created on the second day, separating the waters above from the waters below.

Sheol

The underworld, the abode of the dead, often depicted as a dark and shadowy place.

Tehom

The primordial deep or chaos, often personified as a sea monster in biblical poetry.

Apocalyptic

A genre of literature that reveals hidden cosmic realities and eschatological events, often through visions.