War of the Sixth Coalition

The war emerged from the wreckage of Napoleon's 1812 invasion of Russia, which destroyed the Grande Armée and emboldened his enemies. In December 1812, Prussian General Yorck signed the Convention of Tauroggen, neutralizing his corps without Berlin's approval, a pivotal act that pushed Prussia toward open alliance. The Treaty of Kalisz (February 1813) formalized the Russo-Prussian alliance, and after Napoleon's defeats at Lützen and Bautzen, Austria brokered the Armistice of Pläswitz. When peace talks at the Congress of Prague failed, Austria joined the coalition in August 1813, followed by Sweden under Crown Prince Bernadotte. The United Kingdom, already at war with France, provided subsidies and naval supremacy, completing a coalition that outnumbered Napoleon's forces by roughly two to one.

The autumn 1813 campaign in Germany proved decisive. The Battle of Leipzig (16–19 October 1813), also called the Battle of Nations, was the largest engagement of the Napoleonic Wars, involving over 500,000 troops; the coalition's victory forced Napoleon to retreat across the Rhine. In 1814, the coalition invaded France, and despite Napoleon's brilliant defensive maneuvers in the Six Days' Campaign, the Allies pressed toward Paris. The Treaty of Chaumont (March 1814) bound the coalition to continue the war until Napoleon's defeat. Paris capitulated on 30 March 1814, and Napoleon abdicated on 6 April. The war also saw significant operations in Italy, Spain, and the Low Countries, where coalition forces eroded French control.

The war's outcome dismantled the Napoleonic Empire and restored the Bourbon monarchy under Louis XVIII. The Treaty of Paris (1814) reduced France to its 1792 borders and returned many territories to their pre-revolutionary rulers. The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) subsequently redrew the map of Europe, establishing a balance of power that aimed to prevent future continental hegemony. The coalition's cooperation set a precedent for great-power congresses, while the war's financial and human costs fueled nationalist movements in Germany and Italy. The settlement, though conservative, created a framework that maintained relative peace until the Crimean War.

Beyond the headline battles, several lesser-known dimensions shaped the war. The Swedish Crown Prince Bernadotte, a former French marshal, fought against Napoleon and sought to acquire Norway from Denmark, which he achieved in the Treaty of Kiel (1814). The war also saw the first use of the term 'Blitzkrieg' in a military context, though not in the modern sense. The British Royal Navy's blockade of France and its allies severely strained the French economy, contributing to Napoleon's strategic difficulties. Additionally, the war's end saw the brief return of Napoleon from Elba, leading to the Hundred Days and the Battle of Waterloo, which are often considered a coda to the Sixth Coalition's victory. The coalition's financing relied heavily on British subsidies, which totaled over £100 million, a staggering sum that underscored the economic dimension of the conflict.

Grande Armée

The main military force of the French Empire under Napoleon, which was largely destroyed in the 1812 invasion of Russia.

Convention of Tauroggen

An 1812 agreement by Prussian General Yorck to neutralize his corps, defying orders and paving the way for Prussia's alliance with Russia.

Battle of Leipzig

Also known as the Battle of Nations, a major coalition victory in October 1813 that broke Napoleon's hold on Germany.

Treaty of Chaumont

A March 1814 agreement binding the coalition powers to continue the war until Napoleon's defeat.

Congress of Vienna

An 1814–1815 conference that redrew European borders and established a balance of power after the Napoleonic Wars.