Other meanings of Native Americans in the United States
Indigenous Peoples of the Americas
Native Americans in the United States are the Indigenous peoples of the contiguous United States, including Alaska Natives, who have inhabited the land for thousands of years prior to European colonization. They comprise a diverse array of tribes, each with distinct languages, cultures, and histories. As of the 2020 U.S. Census, over 9.7 million people identified as American Indian or Alaska Native, either alone or in combination with other races.1 Their histories are marked by resilience, adaptation, and ongoing struggles for sovereignty and rights.
The ancestors of Native Americans migrated to the Americas via the Bering land bridge or coastal routes over 15,000 years ago, giving rise to complex societies such as the Ancestral Puebloans, Cahokia, and the Iroquois Confederacy. These societies developed advanced agriculture, architecture, and governance systems. The Iroquois Confederacy, for instance, is often cited as an influence on the U.S. Constitution's federal structure, though this claim is debated among historians.2 By the time of European contact, an estimated 5 million people lived north of the Rio Grande, speaking over 300 distinct languages.
European colonization brought disease, warfare, and forced displacement, decimating Native populations by up to 90% in some regions.3 The Indian Removal Act of 1830 led to the Trail of Tears, during which thousands of Cherokee, Muscogee, and other tribes died. Subsequent policies, including the reservation system and the Dawes Act of 1887, aimed to assimilate Native peoples and break up communal landholdings. The Carlisle Indian Industrial School, founded in 1879, epitomized the forced assimilation era, where children were stripped of their languages and cultures.
Today, 574 federally recognized tribes possess inherent sovereignty, with powers over their territories, including law enforcement and taxation, subject to federal oversight. The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 shifted control of federal programs to tribes, reversing earlier paternalistic policies. However, legal battles persist over water rights, land claims, and jurisdiction, as seen in cases like McGirt v. Oklahoma (2020), which affirmed that much of eastern Oklahoma remains Creek Nation territory.4 Economic development, particularly through gaming under the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988, has provided revenue for many tribes, though disparities remain.
Beyond the well-known narratives, Native Americans have contributed significantly to U.S. military history: Navajo code talkers in World War II used an unbreakable code based on their language, and over 12,000 Native Americans served in World War I even before gaining U.S. citizenship. The Native American Church, which uses peyote in ceremonies, has been legally protected since 1978, yet its practices remain little known. Additionally, the term 'Indian' itself is a misnomer from Columbus's mistaken belief he had reached Asia, and many tribes prefer their own names, such as Diné for the Navajo. Urban Native populations, now over 70% of the total, face unique challenges in preserving cultural ties.
This article focuses on the Indigenous peoples of the contiguous United States and Alaska Natives, excluding Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders.
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