Nationalism in Europe

The modern concept of nationalism arose in Europe during the late 18th century, influenced by Enlightenment ideas of popular sovereignty and the French Revolution. The revolution replaced dynastic loyalty with the idea that the people, or the nation, were the ultimate source of political authority. This was articulated by thinkers such as Johann Gottfried Herder, who emphasized the unique cultural spirit (Volksgeist) of each people, and later by Giuseppe Mazzini, who championed the principle of national self-determination in the 19th century.¹

Early nationalism was often liberal and democratic, seeking to unite fragmented peoples into sovereign nation-states. The Napoleonic Wars spread nationalist sentiments across Europe, as resistance to French domination sparked patriotic movements in Germany, Spain, and Russia. After 1815, the Congress of Vienna attempted to restore the old order, but nationalist aspirations continued to grow, leading to a series of revolutions in 1830 and 1848.²

The mid-19th century witnessed the successful unification of Italy (1861) and Germany (1871), driven by nationalist elites and military power. In Italy, figures like Camillo Benso di Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi combined diplomacy and popular uprising to create a single state. In Germany, Otto von Bismarck used a policy of "blood and iron" to forge a Prussian-dominated empire, which became a major European power.³

Nationalism also destabilized multi-ethnic empires, including the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires. The principle of national self-determination, promoted by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson after World War I, led to the breakup of these empires and the creation of new nation-states in Central and Eastern Europe. However, the redrawn borders often left minorities stranded, sowing seeds for future conflicts.

In the late 19th and 20th centuries, nationalism became increasingly aggressive and exclusive, merging with imperialism and racism. This contributed to the outbreak of World War I, as competing national rivalries and alliances escalated into a continental war. After the war, the Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh penalties on Germany, fueling resentment that nationalist and fascist movements exploited.

The rise of fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany represented a radical, ethnic nationalism that led to World War II and the Holocaust. Post-1945, European integration was partly a response to the destructive excesses of nationalism, aiming to bind former enemies through economic and political cooperation. Yet nationalism persisted in anti-colonial movements and in the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s, which involved ethnic cleansing and war.⁴

Beyond the well-known unifications, nationalism in Europe has many overlooked dimensions. For instance, the 19th-century national awakening of small peoples, such as the Finns, Estonians, and Czechs, involved the deliberate creation of national languages and literatures, often by a small group of intellectuals. The Fennoman movement in Finland, led by figures like Johan Vilhelm Snellman, successfully promoted Finnish over Swedish as the national language.⁵

Another niche aspect is the role of national anthems and symbols in forging national identity. Many anthems, such as the German "Deutschlandlied," were adopted or composed during nationalist movements and have complex histories. Additionally, the concept of banal nationalism, coined by Michael Billig, describes the everyday, unnoticed ways nationalism is reproduced, such as through flags on public buildings and sports events—a subtle but powerful force in contemporary Europe.⁶

Nation-state

A sovereign state whose citizens identify as a single nation based on shared culture, language, or history.

Self-determination

The right of a people to determine their own political status and form their own state.

Volksgeist

A German term meaning 'spirit of the people,' used by Herder to describe the unique cultural character of a nation.