Geopolitics

Geopolitics emerged as a distinct field in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with scholars seeking to explain state power through geographical determinism. Rudolf Kjellén, a Swedish political scientist, coined the term in 1899, defining it as the study of the state as a geographical organism. The most influential classical theory is Halford Mackinder's Heartland Theory (1904), which argued that control of the Eurasian 'pivot area'—roughly the region of Russia and Central Asia—would lead to world domination. Mackinder's dictum, 'Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island; who rules the World-Island commands the world,' became a cornerstone of geopolitical thought.¹

Another key figure was Nicholas Spykman, who in the 1940s proposed the Rimland Theory, emphasizing the importance of the coastal fringes of Eurasia—Western Europe, the Middle East, South Asia, and East Asia—as the key to global power. Spykman's work influenced American Cold War containment policy. Meanwhile, German geopolitik, associated with Karl Haushofer, was later discredited due to its misuse by Nazi ideology, but it highlighted the ethical dangers of geopolitical reasoning.²

From the 1970s onward, critical geopolitics challenged the deterministic and state-centric assumptions of classical theory. Scholars like Gearóid Ó Tuathail and Simon Dalby argued that geopolitical knowledge is socially constructed and serves to legitimize power. They examined how political elites 'script' the world through discourse, shaping public perceptions of threats and interests. This approach draws on poststructuralism and critical theory, analyzing maps, speeches, and media representations as geopolitical texts.

Contemporary geopolitics also incorporates non-state actors, environmental issues, and technology. The concept of 'geoeconomics' describes the use of economic instruments—such as sanctions, trade agreements, and infrastructure projects—to achieve geopolitical goals. Climate change has introduced new challenges, including resource scarcity, migration, and competition in the Arctic. The rise of cyberspace has led to 'cyber geopolitics,' where states vie for control of digital infrastructure and data flows.³

Geopolitical analysis is widely used by governments, militaries, and corporations to inform strategy. For example, the U.S. Navy's concept of 'sea power' draws on Alfred Thayer Mahan's work, emphasizing the control of maritime chokepoints like the Strait of Hormuz and the Malacca Strait. Energy geopolitics focuses on the strategic importance of oil and gas pipelines, with Russia's Nord Stream and the Trans-Caspian pipeline being recent examples. In the 21st century, China's Belt and Road Initiative is often analyzed as a geopolitical project to expand influence through infrastructure investment.

Think tanks such as the RAND Corporation and the Council on Foreign Relations produce geopolitical risk assessments that influence policy decisions. The field also informs military doctrine, as seen in the U.S. 'pivot to Asia' and NATO's eastward expansion debates. However, critics argue that geopolitical reasoning can become self-fulfilling, as states act on assumptions that provoke adversarial responses.

Beyond the well-known theories, geopolitics has a rich history of overlooked figures and concepts. For instance, the American geographer Ellen Churchill Semple, a proponent of environmental determinism, applied geopolitical ideas to explain the rise of civilizations. The 'Rimland' concept was actually developed by Spykman in response to Mackinder, but it was later popularized by Saul Cohen, who introduced the idea of 'shatterbelts'—regions of political fragmentation and competition, such as the Middle East and Southeast Asia.⁴

Another niche area is 'critical geopolitics of the everyday,' which examines how popular culture, such as films and video games, shapes geopolitical imaginations. For example, the 'war on terror' was partly legitimized through Hollywood portrayals of global threats. Additionally, the field of 'feminist geopolitics' highlights how gender and everyday experiences are intertwined with global power structures, a perspective often ignored in traditional analyses.⁵

Heartland

The central Eurasian region that Mackinder argued was key to world domination.

Rimland

The coastal fringes of Eurasia, emphasized by Spykman as crucial for global power.

Geoeconomics

The use of economic tools to achieve geopolitical objectives.

Shatterbelt

A region of political fragmentation and competition, often between great powers.