Food system

The food system is a complex web of activities spanning primary production (agriculture, fisheries, aquaculture), processing and packaging, distribution and retail, consumption, and waste management.¹ It also includes the enabling environment: policies, regulations, infrastructure, and cultural norms that influence how these activities operate. A systems approach recognizes that changes in one part—such as a shift in consumer demand—can ripple through the entire chain, affecting farmers, processors, and the environment.

Key actors include farmers, agribusinesses, food manufacturers, retailers, consumers, and waste handlers, as well as governments and international bodies that set standards. The concept is often used to analyze trade-offs between food security, nutrition, and environmental sustainability, highlighting the need for integrated solutions rather than piecemeal interventions.²

Food systems are a major driver of environmental change, contributing roughly one-third of global greenhouse gas emissions, with livestock production being a particularly significant source of methane and land-use change.³ Agriculture accounts for about 70% of global freshwater withdrawals and is a leading cause of biodiversity loss through habitat conversion and pollution from fertilizers and pesticides.

On the health side, food systems shape diets and nutrition outcomes. The global rise of ultra-processed foods has been linked to increased rates of obesity, diabetes, and other non-communicable diseases, while undernutrition persists in many regions due to inadequate access to nutritious food.⁴ Foodborne diseases also impose a significant burden, with unsafe food causing an estimated 600 million illnesses annually worldwide.⁵

Food systems are governed by a patchwork of international, national, and local institutions. The United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal 2 (Zero Hunger) and the Paris Agreement both implicitly rely on transforming food systems to meet their targets.² The UN Food Systems Summit in 2021 brought together governments, businesses, and civil society to commit to national pathways for sustainable food systems, though progress has been uneven.

Policy instruments include agricultural subsidies, trade agreements, food safety regulations, and nutrition labeling. A growing body of research emphasizes the need for policy coherence, as actions in one sector (e.g., biofuel mandates) can have unintended consequences for food prices and land use.⁶ The concept of 'food sovereignty'—the right of peoples to define their own food systems—has also gained traction among civil society movements, challenging corporate-dominated models.

Beyond the familiar farm-to-fork narrative, food systems include often-overlooked components such as food loss and waste, which accounts for 8–10% of global emissions, and the informal sector, which provides livelihoods for millions in low-income countries.⁷ Urban food systems are emerging as critical nodes, with city governments implementing policies like food hubs and vertical farming to enhance resilience.

Historical perspectives reveal that food systems have long been shaped by colonialism and global trade, such as the 'Columbian Exchange' that introduced crops across continents. More recently, the rise of digital platforms and precision agriculture is transforming supply chains, while the COVID-19 pandemic exposed vulnerabilities in global food networks, leading to calls for shorter, more localized supply chains.⁶ Additionally, the concept of 'food environments'—the physical and social spaces where people obtain food—has become a key lens for understanding consumer behavior and health outcomes.

Food security

The state in which all people have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food.

Food sovereignty

The right of peoples to define their own food and agriculture systems, often contrasted with corporate-led models.

Ultra-processed foods

Industrial formulations made from substances extracted from foods, often high in sugar, fat, and salt.

Food environments

The physical, economic, and social contexts in which people make food choices.