Other meanings of First Nations in Canada
Indigenous Peoples
First Nations in Canada are Indigenous peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis. They are the largest group of Indigenous peoples in the country, with over 600 recognized communities and more than 1.8 million people identifying as First Nations in the 2021 census. Historically referred to as "Indians" in legal documents, the term "First Nations" came into common use in the 1970s to replace the colonial designation. First Nations have diverse cultures, languages, and traditions, and their rights are recognized under the Canadian Constitution and through treaties and land claims.
First Nations in Canada are defined as Indigenous peoples who are neither Inuit nor Métis, a distinction rooted in the Canadian Constitution Act, 1982, which recognizes three groups of Aboriginal peoples. The term "First Nations" is used both collectively and for individual communities, though it is not a legal term; legally, they are referred to as "Indian bands" under the Indian Act. This act, first passed in 1876, governs many aspects of First Nations life, including membership, land management, and governance, and has been criticized for its paternalistic and assimilationist policies. Status Indians, as defined by the act, are entitled to certain rights and benefits, while non-status Indians and those without band membership face different legal realities. The Supreme Court of Canada has affirmed inherent and treaty rights, including the right to self-government, in landmark decisions such as Delgamuukw (1997) and Tsilhqot'in (2014).
The relationship between First Nations and the Crown is historically rooted in treaties, beginning with the Peace and Friendship Treaties (1725–1779) and the later Numbered Treaties (1871–1921) that ceded vast territories in exchange for reserves, annuities, and hunting and fishing rights. These treaties are constitutionally protected, but their interpretation has been contentious, with many First Nations arguing that the Crown failed to honor its promises. The Indian Act and the residential school system, which operated from the 19th century until 1996, were instruments of forced assimilation, leading to intergenerational trauma and cultural loss. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (2015) documented these harms and issued 94 calls to action, including the implementation of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), which Canada endorsed in 2016 and enacted into law in 2021.
Today, First Nations exercise self-government in various forms, from band councils under the Indian Act to modern treaties and self-government agreements, such as the Nisga'a Final Agreement (2000) and the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement (1975). Economic development is increasingly driven by First Nations-owned businesses, including in natural resources, tourism, and technology, with initiatives like the First Nations Land Management Act enabling communities to opt out of certain Indian Act provisions. However, significant disparities persist: First Nations communities often face inadequate housing, clean water advisories, and lower life expectancy compared to non-Indigenous Canadians. The Assembly of First Nations (AFN), established in 1982, serves as a national advocacy body, representing over 600 communities and negotiating with the federal government on issues such as child welfare, education, and health.
Beyond the well-known history, First Nations have made notable contributions in fields often overlooked. For example, the Mohawk community of Kahnawake is renowned for its ironworkers, who helped build the Empire State Building and other skyscrapers, a tradition dating back to the late 19th century. In sports, Tom Longboat, an Onondaga runner, won the 1907 Boston Marathon and later served as a dispatch runner in World War I. In the arts, the film Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner (2001), directed by Zacharias Kunuk, an Inuk, is often cited, but First Nations filmmakers like Alanis Obomsawin (Abenaki) have produced over 50 documentaries since the 1960s. Linguistically, the Nisga'a language is one of the few in the world with a unique orthography, and efforts to revitalize languages like Mi'kmaq use online platforms and apps. Additionally, the First Nations Garden in Montreal, opened in 2001, is a living museum of Indigenous plant knowledge, while the annual Indigenous Music Awards, launched in 2018, celebrate contemporary First Nations musicians.
This article focuses exclusively on First Nations in Canada, distinct from Inuit and Métis peoples.
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