Other meanings of Feminism in the United States
Social Movements
Feminism in the United States encompasses a diverse range of social, political, and cultural movements aimed at establishing, achieving, and defending political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Its history is often periodized into waves, from the 19th-century fight for suffrage to contemporary intersectional activism.
The first wave of American feminism emerged from the abolitionist movement, with key figures like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott organizing the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. The Declaration of Sentiments, modeled on the Declaration of Independence, demanded equal rights for women, including suffrage. The movement gained momentum after the Civil War, leading to the formation of the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), which later merged into the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1890.1
Despite the 15th Amendment granting African American men the vote, women were excluded, causing a split over strategy. Some suffragists, like Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, opposed the amendment, while others, like Lucy Stone, supported it. The movement also saw the rise of figures like Ida B. Wells, who fought for both racial and gender equality, though her contributions were often marginalized by white suffragists. The 19th Amendment, ratified in 1920, was a landmark victory, but it did not fully enfranchise women of color, who faced discriminatory laws and practices in many states.2
The second wave of feminism, emerging in the 1960s, focused on a broader range of issues beyond suffrage, including workplace equality, reproductive rights, and sexuality. Betty Friedan's 1963 book The Feminine Mystique is often credited with igniting the movement, challenging the notion that women's fulfillment lay solely in domesticity. The National Organization for Women (NOW), founded in 1966, became a leading advocacy group, pushing for legal and social change.3
This era saw landmark legal victories such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited sex discrimination in employment, and Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, which banned sex discrimination in education. The Supreme Court's decision in Roe v. Wade (1973) legalized abortion nationwide, a major victory for reproductive rights. However, the movement also faced significant backlash, including the failure to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which fell short of the required number of state ratifications by the 1982 deadline.4
The third wave of feminism, beginning in the early 1990s, sought to address the limitations of the second wave, particularly its focus on the experiences of middle-class white women. This wave embraced intersectionality, a term coined by legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989, which recognizes that systems of oppression such as sexism, racism, and classism are interconnected. Third-wave feminists emphasized individual empowerment, sexual liberation, and diversity, often using popular culture and the internet as platforms for activism.
Key movements during this period included the fight for reproductive justice, which expanded beyond abortion rights to include access to contraception and maternal healthcare, and the push for LGBTQ+ rights, which intersected with feminist goals. The 2017 Women's March, held the day after President Trump's inauguration, became one of the largest single-day protests in U.S. history, drawing millions of participants and highlighting the ongoing relevance of feminist activism.5
Contemporary feminism in the United States is characterized by a focus on systemic issues such as sexual harassment, workplace inequality, and reproductive rights, often amplified by social media. The #MeToo movement, which gained prominence in 2017, exposed widespread sexual misconduct across industries, leading to high-profile resignations and legal actions. The movement also sparked a broader conversation about consent, power dynamics, and the need for institutional change.
In recent years, feminist activism has also targeted issues like the gender pay gap, which persists despite the Equal Pay Act of 1963, and the disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on women, particularly those in low-wage jobs. The Supreme Court's decision in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization (2022), which overturned Roe v. Wade, has galvanized a new generation of activists fighting for reproductive rights at the state level.6
Beyond the well-known waves, American feminism has a rich history of lesser-known figures and movements. For instance, the National Woman's Party, led by Alice Paul, employed more militant tactics like hunger strikes and picketing the White House, which were crucial in pressuring President Wilson to support suffrage. Additionally, the 1977 National Women's Conference in Houston brought together 20,000 delegates to adopt a National Plan of Action, but it was overshadowed by conservative opposition and never fully implemented.1
Another overlooked aspect is the role of women of color in shaping feminist thought. Figures like bell hooks and Audre Lorde critiqued mainstream feminism for its exclusionary practices, laying the groundwork for intersectional theory. The Combahee River Collective, a Black feminist lesbian organization, issued a statement in 1977 that articulated the interlocking nature of oppression, a precursor to Crenshaw's work. Additionally, the feminist movement has included men as allies, such as the National Organization for Men Against Sexism, founded in 1975, which advocates for gender equality and challenges traditional masculinity.
This article covers the history and movements of feminism in the United States, from the first wave to contemporary activism.
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