Buddhism in China

Buddhism arrived in China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), likely via the Silk Road, with early translations of scriptures by figures like An Shigao.¹ The faith initially struggled to gain traction but flourished during the Six Dynasties period, when it was embraced by the elite and supported by the state. The Tang dynasty (618–907) marked its golden age, with the rise of indigenous schools such as Chan (Zen) and Tiantai, and the famous pilgrimage of Xuanzang to India.² However, the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution of 845, led by Emperor Wuzong, severely weakened the religion, and it never fully regained its former political influence. Despite this, Buddhism remained a vital cultural force, adapting to local customs and merging with Daoist and Confucian ideas.

Chinese Buddhism is dominated by the Mahayana tradition, which emphasizes the bodhisattva ideal and includes several distinct schools. The Pure Land school, focusing on devotion to Amitabha Buddha, and the Chan school, which stresses meditation and direct insight, are the most popular.³ The Tiantai school, founded by Zhiyi, systematized the teachings of the Lotus Sutra, while the Huayan school developed a comprehensive philosophy of interpenetration. The Vinaya school, though less prominent, preserved monastic discipline. These schools often overlapped, and by the Ming dynasty, a syncretic approach became common, blending practices from multiple traditions. Tibetan Buddhism, particularly the Gelug school, also has a significant presence in Tibet and parts of Inner Mongolia, adding to the diversity of Buddhist practice in China.

Buddhism in China operates under the supervision of the state, with the Buddhist Association of China (BAC) serving as the official governing body since 1953.⁴ The BAC oversees monastic ordination, temple management, and educational programs, and it aligns with the government's religious policies. During the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), Buddhism was severely suppressed, with temples destroyed and monastics forced to laicize. Since the 1980s, the state has allowed a controlled revival, and Buddhism has grown rapidly, with new temples and seminaries opening. However, the government maintains strict oversight, particularly over Tibetan Buddhism, which is seen as a potential source of ethnic unrest. This relationship has led to tensions, but also to a pragmatic coexistence, with the state supporting Buddhist charitable activities and cultural heritage preservation.

Beyond the well-known schools, Chinese Buddhism has a rich history of lesser-known figures and practices. For instance, the monk Yijing (635–713) made a sea voyage to India and left detailed records of monastic life, complementing Xuanzang's overland journey.⁵ The esoteric traditions, including the Zhenyan (Mantra) school, were influential during the Tang but declined, leaving a legacy in Japanese Shingon. The practice of 'release life' (fangsheng), where animals are bought and freed, has been a popular merit-making activity since the sixth century, though it has raised ecological concerns in modern times. Additionally, the Buddhist canon in Chinese, the Taisho Tripitaka, contains over 2,000 texts, many of which are translations of Sanskrit originals that are now lost, making it an invaluable resource for scholars. The role of women, such as the nun Zongxiao, who wrote influential commentaries in the Song dynasty, is also a growing area of study.

Mahayana

The 'Great Vehicle' tradition of Buddhism, emphasizing the bodhisattva path and widespread enlightenment.

Chan

A school of Chinese Buddhism that emphasizes meditation and direct insight, known as Zen in Japan.

Pure Land

A devotional school focused on rebirth in the Western Paradise of Amitabha Buddha.

Bodhisattva

A being who postpones enlightenment to help others, a central ideal in Mahayana Buddhism.

Taisho Tripitaka

The standard modern edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon, compiled in Japan.