Artillery

Artillery is broadly defined as projectile-firing weapons with a caliber larger than small arms, typically operated by a crew. It includes guns (high-velocity, flat trajectory), howitzers (medium velocity, steep trajectory), mortars (low velocity, very steep trajectory), and rocket artillery (self-propelled projectiles). Modern classification also distinguishes towed, self-propelled, and railway-mounted systems, as well as by role: field artillery, anti-aircraft artillery, and coastal artillery.

The term derives from the Old French artillerie, meaning equipment or military stores, and originally referred to any mechanical war engine, including catapults and trebuchets. In contemporary usage, it excludes small arms and guided missiles, though some rocket systems blur the line.

Gunpowder artillery emerged in China by the 13th century and spread to Europe, where early bombards were used in sieges. The 15th-century French artillery under Jean Bureau helped end the Hundred Years' War, demonstrating the power of mobile guns. The 19th century brought rifled barrels and breech-loading, increasing range and accuracy. World War I saw the rise of indirect fire and the famous Paris Gun, which shelled Paris from 120 km away.

Post-1945, self-propelled howitzers and rocket systems like the Soviet Katyusha became standard. Modern artillery uses computerized fire control, GPS-guided shells, and autonomous loading, as seen in systems like the US M777 and German PzH 2000.

Contemporary artillery emphasizes mobility, precision, and rapid response. The 155 mm NATO standard howitzer, such as the M777, weighs under 4,200 kg and can be airlifted by helicopter. Self-propelled systems like the PzH 2000 achieve rates of fire up to 10 rounds per minute with automatic loading.

Precision-guided munitions, such as the M982 Excalibur, use GPS to achieve circular error probable (CEP) of less than 10 meters, reducing collateral damage. Rocket artillery, like the HIMARS, fires guided rockets to ranges over 70 km, and can launch ATACMS missiles. Counter-battery radar and drone-based fire correction are now integral to artillery operations.

Artillery has surprising niche applications. During the Cold War, the US developed nuclear artillery shells, such as the W48, with yields equivalent to 72 tons of TNT, deployed in Europe. The Soviet Union built the 2B1 Oka, a 420 mm self-propelled mortar capable of firing nuclear projectiles, though only four were made.

In the 19th century, the British used artillery to launch mail and supplies across rivers in India, and during the Siege of Sevastopol (1854–55), the British fired over 50,000 shells per day. The largest artillery piece ever built, the German Schwerer Gustav, had a caliber of 800 mm and could penetrate 7 meters of reinforced concrete, but was impractical due to its size.

In contemporary conflicts, artillery remains the primary source of firepower on the battlefield. In the Russo-Ukrainian War, both sides have relied heavily on artillery, with Ukraine using Western-supplied M777 and HIMARS systems to counter Russian tube and rocket artillery. The war has highlighted the importance of counter-battery operations and the vulnerability of towed artillery to drones.

Future developments include railguns and electromagnetic launchers, which promise longer ranges and higher velocities, though they remain experimental. Directed-energy weapons, such as lasers, are being developed for anti-artillery defense, but are not yet operational.

Howitzer

A type of artillery piece with a medium barrel length and a trajectory between a gun and a mortar, capable of high-angle fire.

Mortar

A short, portable artillery piece that fires shells at high angles, often used for close support.

Counter-battery fire

Fire directed at enemy artillery positions to destroy or suppress them, often using radar to locate the source.

CEP (Circular Error Probable)

A measure of accuracy; the radius of a circle within which 50% of projectiles are expected to land.