Achaemenid Persia
Artaxerxes II (Old Persian: Artaxšacā, meaning 'whose reign is through truth') was the King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 404 to 358 BC. He ascended the throne after the death of his father Darius II, but his reign was immediately challenged by his younger brother Cyrus the Younger in a civil war that culminated in the Battle of Cunaxa in 401 BC. Despite early instability, Artaxerxes II ruled for 46 years, one of the longest reigns in Persian history, and is known for his monumental building projects, religious tolerance, and the eventual loss of Egypt to a native revolt.
Artaxerxes II succeeded his father Darius II in 404 BC, but his younger brother Cyrus the Younger, who had been satrap of Lydia and had amassed considerable Greek mercenary support, contested the succession. Cyrus raised an army of about 10,000 Greek mercenaries, the famous 'Ten Thousand,' and marched from Sardis to Babylon. The two armies met at the Battle of Cunaxa in 401 BC, where Cyrus was killed in a reckless charge, ending the rebellion. The Greek mercenaries, left leaderless, were forced to march back through hostile territory, an ordeal chronicled by Xenophon in the Anabasis. Artaxerxes' victory solidified his rule, but the rebellion had drained resources and exposed the empire's internal fragility.
Artaxerxes II's reign was marked by prolonged conflict with Sparta and later with the other Greek city-states. After Cunaxa, Sparta supported Cyrus's cause, leading to a war in Asia Minor. The Persians financed the building of a Spartan fleet under Conon, which defeated the Spartans at the Battle of Cnidus in 394 BC, effectively ending Spartan naval supremacy. The King's Peace, also known as the Peace of Antalcidas, was imposed in 387 BC, guaranteeing Persian control over the Greek cities of Asia Minor and establishing a fragile balance of power in Greece.1 In Egypt, a revolt led by Amyrtaeus in 404 BC succeeded in expelling the Persians, and subsequent attempts to reconquer the Nile Delta failed, including a major campaign in 373 BC. Egypt remained independent until Artaxerxes III reconquered it in 343 BC.
Artaxerxes II was a prolific builder, and his reign saw the construction of grand monuments at Susa and Ecbatana. He built a new palace at Susa, which was later used by Alexander the Great, and his tomb at Persepolis is one of the best-preserved royal tombs. He also restored the temple of Anahita at Ecbatana and promoted the cult of Anahita and Mithra, alongside the traditional worship of Ahura Mazda. This religious tolerance was characteristic of Achaemenid policy, but it also reflected a shift toward a more syncretic form of Zoroastrianism. Inscriptions from his reign, such as those at Susa, emphasize his devotion to these deities and his role as a restorer of order.
Beyond the well-known events, Artaxerxes II's reign had several lesser-known facets. He had a harem of 360 concubines, and his wife Stateira was murdered by his mother Parysatis in a palace intrigue, reflecting the intense power struggles within the royal family. He also faced a revolt in the western satrapies, known as the Great Satraps' Revolt (366–360 BC), led by Datames, Ariobarzanes, and others, which was only suppressed with difficulty. Artaxerxes II was also the first Achaemenid king to use the title 'King of Kings' in a formal inscription, and he adopted the Egyptian royal title 'Pharaoh' after his failed campaigns, though he never actually controlled Egypt. His reign saw the first use of coined money in the empire, with the introduction of silver sigloi and gold darics, which facilitated trade and tribute.
Artaxerxes II's reign, though long, was marked by internal strife and the beginning of the empire's decline, setting the stage for its eventual conquest by Alexander the Great.
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