Ageism

Ageism was first defined by Robert N. Butler in 1969 as a systematic stereotyping of and discrimination against people because they are old, analogous to racism and sexism. Butler, a psychiatrist and first director of the National Institute on Aging, observed that ageism pervaded American society, from medical care to the workplace. The term later expanded to include prejudice against younger people, as in the concept of 'adultism' or 'reverse ageism.' The WHO now defines ageism as 'the stereotypes (how we think), prejudice (how we feel), and discrimination (how we act) toward others or oneself based on age.'

Ageism operates at three levels: individual (internalized beliefs), interpersonal (interactions), and institutional (laws, policies, and practices). In healthcare, older adults may receive less aggressive treatment or be excluded from clinical trials, leading to poorer outcomes. In employment, age discrimination affects hiring, promotion, and retention, with older workers facing longer unemployment spells. The economic cost is substantial: a 2020 AARP study estimated that ageism in the U.S. healthcare system alone costs $63 billion annually, equivalent to one in every seven dollars spent on the eight most expensive health conditions. Ageism also harms mental health, with studies linking negative age stereotypes to increased cardiovascular stress and reduced longevity.

Interventions to reduce ageism include education, intergenerational contact, and policy reform. The WHO's Global Campaign to Combat Ageism, launched in 2021, provides evidence-based strategies such as myth-busting and promoting positive images of aging. Legal frameworks like the U.S. Age Discrimination in Employment Act (1967) and the United Kingdom's Equality Act (2010) prohibit age-based discrimination in employment. However, enforcement remains inconsistent, and ageism often goes unreported. Research suggests that even brief educational interventions can shift attitudes, and intergenerational programs—such as shared housing or mentoring—reduce prejudice by fostering cooperation and dispelling stereotypes.

Ageism is not limited to older adults; it also affects younger people, who may be dismissed as inexperienced or irresponsible. The term 'adultism' describes discrimination against youth, and 'childism' refers to prejudice against children. Ageism intersects with other forms of discrimination: older women face 'double jeopardy' of ageism and sexism, and older LGBTQ+ individuals may experience compounded stigma. In the digital realm, 'techno-ageism' describes the exclusion of older adults from technology design and access. Notably, ageism can be self-directed: older adults who internalize negative age stereotypes show worse memory performance and even shorter lifespans. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted ageism in triage protocols and public discourse, with older adults often portrayed as a homogeneous burden.

Adultism

Prejudice and discrimination against young people, often based on assumptions of immaturity or incompetence.

Childism

Prejudice and discrimination against children, similar to adultism but specifically targeting minors.

Techno-ageism

The exclusion of older adults from technology design, access, and use, often due to stereotypes about their abilities.

Double jeopardy

The compounded discrimination experienced by individuals who belong to two or more marginalized groups, such as older women.